Politics and Government
Absolutism - government in which a monarch has complete power: nobody he has to negotiate with and no restrictions on what he can do. After the Renaissance, some larger European states developed infrastructure and central control, but most still accepted the concept of "divine right" and absolute rule of the monarch. It can be effective and efficient - even leading to a Golden Age - but with no checks on government power it can get out of hand.
Bicameral - literally "two rooms", describes a system with a two-house legislature (like in the US: with our Congress consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives). We modeled our bicameral legislature on the English Parliament, which has bicameral with both a House of Lords and a House of Commons.
Chancellor - see Parliament
Coalition - a temporary alliance in order to accomplish a task. One might form a coalition to select an executive in a parliamentary system (as Hitler did); the term is also used for a military coalition of countries to fight a war.
Constitutionalism - The idea of placing limits on what a government can do. Developed in England, with Parliament able (because of Magna Carta) to demand that the king get their approval to raise taxes. Eventually became standard throughout the Western World.
Collective Security - An agreement among a group of countries that if one is attacked, all of them will consider themselves attacked (and will defend!)
Divine Right - the circular logic stating that the king is the king because God wants him to be king so don't you dare question him. Associated with absolutism
Estates General - a sort of legislature in pre-Revolutionary France. Only thing was, entire levels of society each had just one vote, so 95% of the people were always outvoted by the nobles and the clergy. (See "Three Estates")
Executive - the branch of government that EXECUTES THE POLICY - that runs the very large bureaucracy that does all the actual goverment jobs; in the US, that is the presidency. In many European countries, it is the Prime Minister or the Chancellor
Feudalism - A government system based on a hierarchy (like the pyramid shown here) of loyalties: the fellow above provides land and protection, while the fellow below provides goods and services; it was the dominant political/governmental/security system during the Middle Ages (Medieval Period)
Imperialism - the control of a region/territory by outsiders. In general, this refers to how European powers, especially in the 19th and early 20th centuries, controlled MANY, MANY places in the world....nearly all of Africa, and most of Asia and the Pacific. Their reason for wanting that control? So they could take those regions' natural resources (agricultural or mineral).
Legislature - the branch of government that NEGOTIATES AND WRITES THE POLICY, Usually a group of a few hundred elected representatives. In the US, it is our bicameral Congress. In many European countries it is the Parliament or Bundestag.
Legitimacy - a government's right to rule being accepted by the people and by other countries
Machiavellian - an adjective describing a ruler who "leaves ethics at the door" in the interest of creating a stable and prosperous state; tends to be used, though, to mean "ruthless" and "calculating"; famously associated with the phrase "The end justifies the means". Word derives from the Renaissance author Nicolo Machiavelli who wrote The Prince, a kind of guide for rulers.
Nation-State - a country that corresponds to a nation; in other words, if all the German-speaking territories get together and become a single country, governed by Germans, then Germany could be called a nation-state.
Nationalism - strong loyalty to your nation (that is, the people with whom you share language, ethnicity, culture, etc.). Also, nationalists feel that people who of the same nation
1) should all be one country and
2) should rule themselves.
Natural Rights - according to John Locke, these are rights we all have, not because a government gives them to us but just because we're alive. They are the right to not have the government take your Life, the right to move around with Liberty, and the right to not have someone take your Property.
Pacifism - a belief that war is never justified
Parliament - Another word for a legislature. Particularly associated with the British legislature, and "Parliamentary" describes any system that, like the British, has its executive (Prime Minister, Chancellor) chosen from and by the legislature
Propaganda - Information that has been manipulated to influence opinions or promote a cause; sometimes propaganda includes information that is just plain false.
Referendum - a popular vote on an issue; if a legislative body feels it needs the extra legitimacy of having the people decide something democratically, it refers the issue to the population, thus 'referendum'
Self-Determination - The ability of a country or national group to decide how its government will be organized and run. This was especially stressed in the discussion of the end of World War I: Woodrow Wilson promoted Nation-States with self-determination (but the others at the Versailles Conference had other ideas)
Separation of Powers - the idea that government can be kept from becoming TOO powerful if powers are separated between the two branches: Legislative writes the plan for government, but Executive carries it out. They "check" each other. Concept written about by Baron de Montesquieu.
Social Contract - Theory saying people understand that rules are necessary for a safe society, and therefore they accept government legitimacy - it’s the opposite of the idea of “divine right”. First put forward by Thomas Hobbes.
Socialism - belief that government should ensure (and often run) essential industries and services. For example, governments that provide free health care and university education (as do most European governments) would be called Socialist.
Suffrage - the right to vote
Bicameral - literally "two rooms", describes a system with a two-house legislature (like in the US: with our Congress consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives). We modeled our bicameral legislature on the English Parliament, which has bicameral with both a House of Lords and a House of Commons.
Chancellor - see Parliament
Coalition - a temporary alliance in order to accomplish a task. One might form a coalition to select an executive in a parliamentary system (as Hitler did); the term is also used for a military coalition of countries to fight a war.
Constitutionalism - The idea of placing limits on what a government can do. Developed in England, with Parliament able (because of Magna Carta) to demand that the king get their approval to raise taxes. Eventually became standard throughout the Western World.
Collective Security - An agreement among a group of countries that if one is attacked, all of them will consider themselves attacked (and will defend!)
Divine Right - the circular logic stating that the king is the king because God wants him to be king so don't you dare question him. Associated with absolutism
Estates General - a sort of legislature in pre-Revolutionary France. Only thing was, entire levels of society each had just one vote, so 95% of the people were always outvoted by the nobles and the clergy. (See "Three Estates")
Executive - the branch of government that EXECUTES THE POLICY - that runs the very large bureaucracy that does all the actual goverment jobs; in the US, that is the presidency. In many European countries, it is the Prime Minister or the Chancellor
Feudalism - A government system based on a hierarchy (like the pyramid shown here) of loyalties: the fellow above provides land and protection, while the fellow below provides goods and services; it was the dominant political/governmental/security system during the Middle Ages (Medieval Period)
Imperialism - the control of a region/territory by outsiders. In general, this refers to how European powers, especially in the 19th and early 20th centuries, controlled MANY, MANY places in the world....nearly all of Africa, and most of Asia and the Pacific. Their reason for wanting that control? So they could take those regions' natural resources (agricultural or mineral).
Legislature - the branch of government that NEGOTIATES AND WRITES THE POLICY, Usually a group of a few hundred elected representatives. In the US, it is our bicameral Congress. In many European countries it is the Parliament or Bundestag.
Legitimacy - a government's right to rule being accepted by the people and by other countries
Machiavellian - an adjective describing a ruler who "leaves ethics at the door" in the interest of creating a stable and prosperous state; tends to be used, though, to mean "ruthless" and "calculating"; famously associated with the phrase "The end justifies the means". Word derives from the Renaissance author Nicolo Machiavelli who wrote The Prince, a kind of guide for rulers.
Nation-State - a country that corresponds to a nation; in other words, if all the German-speaking territories get together and become a single country, governed by Germans, then Germany could be called a nation-state.
Nationalism - strong loyalty to your nation (that is, the people with whom you share language, ethnicity, culture, etc.). Also, nationalists feel that people who of the same nation
1) should all be one country and
2) should rule themselves.
Natural Rights - according to John Locke, these are rights we all have, not because a government gives them to us but just because we're alive. They are the right to not have the government take your Life, the right to move around with Liberty, and the right to not have someone take your Property.
Pacifism - a belief that war is never justified
Parliament - Another word for a legislature. Particularly associated with the British legislature, and "Parliamentary" describes any system that, like the British, has its executive (Prime Minister, Chancellor) chosen from and by the legislature
Propaganda - Information that has been manipulated to influence opinions or promote a cause; sometimes propaganda includes information that is just plain false.
Referendum - a popular vote on an issue; if a legislative body feels it needs the extra legitimacy of having the people decide something democratically, it refers the issue to the population, thus 'referendum'
Self-Determination - The ability of a country or national group to decide how its government will be organized and run. This was especially stressed in the discussion of the end of World War I: Woodrow Wilson promoted Nation-States with self-determination (but the others at the Versailles Conference had other ideas)
Separation of Powers - the idea that government can be kept from becoming TOO powerful if powers are separated between the two branches: Legislative writes the plan for government, but Executive carries it out. They "check" each other. Concept written about by Baron de Montesquieu.
Social Contract - Theory saying people understand that rules are necessary for a safe society, and therefore they accept government legitimacy - it’s the opposite of the idea of “divine right”. First put forward by Thomas Hobbes.
Socialism - belief that government should ensure (and often run) essential industries and services. For example, governments that provide free health care and university education (as do most European governments) would be called Socialist.
Suffrage - the right to vote
Economics
Capitalism - An economic system built around individuals investing to make a profit (in contrast to government-funded industry); individuals own shares/stocks in companies, and when those companies do well (compete well economically), the shareholders make money.
Comparative Advantage - term for the idea that countries/regions should produce those things they are better suited to growing/making: "Don't grow wine grapes in Scotland! Grow sheep and sell the wool to Italians, then buy their wine!". Associated with Adam Smith.
Free Market - Describes an economic system in which prices are set by the law of supply and demand with no government interference. In theory, demand and competition in a free market will guarantee that the things people need will be available at a fair price. Associated with Adam Smith.
Laissez-Faire - Literally "let do"; term for minimal government intervention in the economy (no trade barriers, little regulation, little government investment)
Manorialism - An economic system based on self-sufficient manors with very little trade; it often goes together with a feudal political system, and was the dominant economic system during the Middle Ages (Medieval Era). This is a diagram of how a Manor might be laid out.
Comparative Advantage - term for the idea that countries/regions should produce those things they are better suited to growing/making: "Don't grow wine grapes in Scotland! Grow sheep and sell the wool to Italians, then buy their wine!". Associated with Adam Smith.
Free Market - Describes an economic system in which prices are set by the law of supply and demand with no government interference. In theory, demand and competition in a free market will guarantee that the things people need will be available at a fair price. Associated with Adam Smith.
Laissez-Faire - Literally "let do"; term for minimal government intervention in the economy (no trade barriers, little regulation, little government investment)
Manorialism - An economic system based on self-sufficient manors with very little trade; it often goes together with a feudal political system, and was the dominant economic system during the Middle Ages (Medieval Era). This is a diagram of how a Manor might be laid out.
RELIGION & Philosophy
Clergy - (adj. Clerical) the general term for religious professionals, i.e. priests, ministers, popes, monks, nuns, imams, rabbis, etc.
Congregationalist - the denomination name adopted by the English Puritans (Calvinists) who founded many of the towns of New England, including Durham. Also called The United Church of Christ
Excommunication - an declaration from the RCChurch that a particular person could not receive the seven sacraments that were believed necessary for salvation (that is, going to Heaven after death).
Humanism -
1) a belief that humans, and the individual human, can accomplish great things, and that one's focus should be on accomplishments in this life (and not so much on the 'afterlife')
2) focusing study on the humanities (human achievement) such as history, literature, the arts, philosophy
Indulgence - A type of card or token that people bought from the Roman Catholic church in hopes that it would improve their chances of getting into heaven. For Martin Luther, it was kind of the 'last straw' showing that the RC Church (at least at that time) was corrupt. Attacking the sale of indulgences was a central point in Luther's 95 Theses.
Lutheran - the denomination of protestant Christianity founded by Martin Luther; found especially in the Northern Germany and the Scandinavian countries like Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Monk - a man who doesn't participate in standard human life-choices (family, job) to devote himself to God, ususally living with others who have made that same commitment. Monks were important and sometimes powerful groups in the Roman Catholic Church. A woman who makes a similar commitment is a nun.
Monastery - An institution that is home to an order (group) of monks. In the Middle Ages, in addition to serving as an arm of the RC church, they frequently provided social services in that they helped the poor and sick, became storehouses of knowledge, and provided (a little) education
Philosophe - the French word for Philosopher
Predestination - a concept associated with Calvinism that one's ultimate fate (that is, saved or condemned) is determined even before birth
Protestantism - the general term for the branches of Christianity that rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The term encompasses many, many denominations including Lutheran, Congregationalist, Baptist, Episcopalian, and Methodist.
Puritans - An early sect in the Protestant movement. The sect was founded by John Calvin, and had very strict practices. They come up in our study because it was Puritans under Oliver Cromwell who fought to unseat Charles I in the English Civil War, and they will come up in US History because they were the first European settlers in New England.
Roman Catholic Church - (sometimes called simply "the Church" if you're talking about an era when it was the only one around) The branch of Christianity centered in Rome, with the Pope in charge. It held tremendous power in Western Europe, including political power.
Secular - NOT related to religion
Secularism - the concept that government (as well as many other endeavors) should NOT be closely tied to religion or religious institutions
Seven Sacraments - rituals overseen by the RC Church which followers believe are necessary for getting to Heaven. These are Baptism, Confirmation, Communion, Confession, Reconciliation, Marriage, Taking of Holy Orders, and Last Rites.
Utilitarianism - The belief that government should have policies that will create the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Congregationalist - the denomination name adopted by the English Puritans (Calvinists) who founded many of the towns of New England, including Durham. Also called The United Church of Christ
Excommunication - an declaration from the RCChurch that a particular person could not receive the seven sacraments that were believed necessary for salvation (that is, going to Heaven after death).
Humanism -
1) a belief that humans, and the individual human, can accomplish great things, and that one's focus should be on accomplishments in this life (and not so much on the 'afterlife')
2) focusing study on the humanities (human achievement) such as history, literature, the arts, philosophy
Indulgence - A type of card or token that people bought from the Roman Catholic church in hopes that it would improve their chances of getting into heaven. For Martin Luther, it was kind of the 'last straw' showing that the RC Church (at least at that time) was corrupt. Attacking the sale of indulgences was a central point in Luther's 95 Theses.
Lutheran - the denomination of protestant Christianity founded by Martin Luther; found especially in the Northern Germany and the Scandinavian countries like Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Monk - a man who doesn't participate in standard human life-choices (family, job) to devote himself to God, ususally living with others who have made that same commitment. Monks were important and sometimes powerful groups in the Roman Catholic Church. A woman who makes a similar commitment is a nun.
Monastery - An institution that is home to an order (group) of monks. In the Middle Ages, in addition to serving as an arm of the RC church, they frequently provided social services in that they helped the poor and sick, became storehouses of knowledge, and provided (a little) education
Philosophe - the French word for Philosopher
Predestination - a concept associated with Calvinism that one's ultimate fate (that is, saved or condemned) is determined even before birth
Protestantism - the general term for the branches of Christianity that rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The term encompasses many, many denominations including Lutheran, Congregationalist, Baptist, Episcopalian, and Methodist.
Puritans - An early sect in the Protestant movement. The sect was founded by John Calvin, and had very strict practices. They come up in our study because it was Puritans under Oliver Cromwell who fought to unseat Charles I in the English Civil War, and they will come up in US History because they were the first European settlers in New England.
Roman Catholic Church - (sometimes called simply "the Church" if you're talking about an era when it was the only one around) The branch of Christianity centered in Rome, with the Pope in charge. It held tremendous power in Western Europe, including political power.
Secular - NOT related to religion
Secularism - the concept that government (as well as many other endeavors) should NOT be closely tied to religion or religious institutions
Seven Sacraments - rituals overseen by the RC Church which followers believe are necessary for getting to Heaven. These are Baptism, Confirmation, Communion, Confession, Reconciliation, Marriage, Taking of Holy Orders, and Last Rites.
Utilitarianism - The belief that government should have policies that will create the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Society and Social Structure
Bourgeoisie - The middle class, especially the upper middle class that invests in trade and industry;
Classical - a general term applying to the cultural heritage from ancient Greece and Rome
Lord - the guy above you in a feudal system
Nepotism - giving jobs to your relatives. We first came across it as an example of corruption in the RC Church in the Middle Ages, and then again when Napoleon was making his relatives the rulers of lands he captured.
Patron - A person who purchases or supports something. This came up relating to there being wealthy merchants (as well as the RC Church) who were patrons for the artists and scholars of the Renaissance
Protelariat - the industrial working class; those folks whose ancestors had been serfs or village farmers but who lost work, moved to cities, and became the cheap (and sometimes abused) labor for the Industrial Revolution
Reparation - Payment to repair damage one has caused, or that a country has caused. Although the term is used in things like lawsuits, it came up in class relating to the Allies demands that Germany pay for all of the damage caused by World War I
Serf - a peasant who was "tied to the land" (that is, the peasant was not permitted to leave, and if the land changed ownership, the peasant became the serf of the new fellow)
The Three Estates - the way society was organized into three groups in pre-Revolutionary France: Clergy, Nobles, Everybody Else (who included Bourgeoisie, urban workers, and rural farmers - 98% of the population)
Total War - when the war effort dominates all activity in a country - all the industry, all the taxes, all the focus is on the war effort.
Urbanization - the growth of cities; the movement of people from rural areas to cities.
European cities gradually grew throughout the history we've been looking at, with major growth spurts right after the plague, and then with industrialization.
Vassal - the guy below you in a feudal system
Classical - a general term applying to the cultural heritage from ancient Greece and Rome
Lord - the guy above you in a feudal system
Nepotism - giving jobs to your relatives. We first came across it as an example of corruption in the RC Church in the Middle Ages, and then again when Napoleon was making his relatives the rulers of lands he captured.
Patron - A person who purchases or supports something. This came up relating to there being wealthy merchants (as well as the RC Church) who were patrons for the artists and scholars of the Renaissance
Protelariat - the industrial working class; those folks whose ancestors had been serfs or village farmers but who lost work, moved to cities, and became the cheap (and sometimes abused) labor for the Industrial Revolution
Reparation - Payment to repair damage one has caused, or that a country has caused. Although the term is used in things like lawsuits, it came up in class relating to the Allies demands that Germany pay for all of the damage caused by World War I
Serf - a peasant who was "tied to the land" (that is, the peasant was not permitted to leave, and if the land changed ownership, the peasant became the serf of the new fellow)
The Three Estates - the way society was organized into three groups in pre-Revolutionary France: Clergy, Nobles, Everybody Else (who included Bourgeoisie, urban workers, and rural farmers - 98% of the population)
Total War - when the war effort dominates all activity in a country - all the industry, all the taxes, all the focus is on the war effort.
Urbanization - the growth of cities; the movement of people from rural areas to cities.
European cities gradually grew throughout the history we've been looking at, with major growth spurts right after the plague, and then with industrialization.
Vassal - the guy below you in a feudal system
Ideas - developments in Science, Technologies, and Arts
Guerilla War - fighting characterized by one side being able to "hit and run", to fire a sniper bullet then melt into the local population. It is often used in rebellion against an occupying force (Napoleon's forces in Spain, the British in the American colonies, the US in Vietnam and Iraq). The name comes from the Spanish and means "little war". It has nothing to do with great apes.
Guillotine - a device for beheading people swiftly and surely. Especially associated with the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution
Perspective/vanishing point - techniques developed by Renaissance artists to give depth to their paintings
Printing Press - The combining of the printing press with moveable type tremendously speeded up the copying of books (previously it had been by hand one-at-time). Not only were there more books, they were also cheaper. This revolutionized people's access to knowledge - considered by many to be the most impactful development in European History. First Bible printed this way by Gutenberg around 1456.
Renaissance - A term meaning "rebirth" which is often applied to the changes in art, scholarship, attitudes about the Church and attitudes about the individual that occurred in 15th and 16th century Europe, especially in Italy (but also the Netherlands, England, and elsewhere)
Scorched Earth Tactics - when an army is retreating, it burns all the resources (food, homes) of the area it is leaving so as not to allow the opposing sources to benefit from them. Especially associated with what the Russians did during Napoleon's invasion.
U-Boat - ("Unterseeboot", German for Submarine) U-Boats were first used on a large scale by the Germans during World War I, and their sinking of ships with Americans on them helped bring the US into that war
Vernacular - the everyday language of the common people (in contrast to the formal scholarly and religious languages like Latin, Greek, and Arabic). It came up in our study because in the late Middle Ages, a few folks began writing in the vernacular. Later, Martin Luther called for translating (and printing) the Bible in the vernacular so people could read it for themselves.
Guillotine - a device for beheading people swiftly and surely. Especially associated with the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution
Perspective/vanishing point - techniques developed by Renaissance artists to give depth to their paintings
Printing Press - The combining of the printing press with moveable type tremendously speeded up the copying of books (previously it had been by hand one-at-time). Not only were there more books, they were also cheaper. This revolutionized people's access to knowledge - considered by many to be the most impactful development in European History. First Bible printed this way by Gutenberg around 1456.
Renaissance - A term meaning "rebirth" which is often applied to the changes in art, scholarship, attitudes about the Church and attitudes about the individual that occurred in 15th and 16th century Europe, especially in Italy (but also the Netherlands, England, and elsewhere)
Scorched Earth Tactics - when an army is retreating, it burns all the resources (food, homes) of the area it is leaving so as not to allow the opposing sources to benefit from them. Especially associated with what the Russians did during Napoleon's invasion.
U-Boat - ("Unterseeboot", German for Submarine) U-Boats were first used on a large scale by the Germans during World War I, and their sinking of ships with Americans on them helped bring the US into that war
Vernacular - the everyday language of the common people (in contrast to the formal scholarly and religious languages like Latin, Greek, and Arabic). It came up in our study because in the late Middle Ages, a few folks began writing in the vernacular. Later, Martin Luther called for translating (and printing) the Bible in the vernacular so people could read it for themselves.
Area - Things to understand about the land, its people, its resources
Infrastructure - the network of transportation (road, railroads), communication (phone lines, mail service, radio), and essential services (sewers, hospitals) that helps to unite a country and allows institutions (like government, schools, church) to function on a large scale
"The West" - the countries and cultures that trace their origins primarily to Western Europe, so this includes not only the countries that actually are in Western Europe, but also the US and Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In most ways the countries of Central and South America can be considered western as well.
Western Europe - the cultures and countries in the West of Europe including Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, and many others. The designation comes from a long, long time ago, when a Roman Emperor split the empire into a western and eastern portion. Even after the Western part of the Roman Empire fell, those regions developed differently from the eastern ones because of the strong influence of the Roman Catholic Church.
"The West" - the countries and cultures that trace their origins primarily to Western Europe, so this includes not only the countries that actually are in Western Europe, but also the US and Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In most ways the countries of Central and South America can be considered western as well.
Western Europe - the cultures and countries in the West of Europe including Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, and many others. The designation comes from a long, long time ago, when a Roman Emperor split the empire into a western and eastern portion. Even after the Western part of the Roman Empire fell, those regions developed differently from the eastern ones because of the strong influence of the Roman Catholic Church.
Identifications - People
Renaisance artists:
Great minds of the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution
Enlightenment Philosophers
19th Century Thinkers
Rulers from Many Eras
Rebels
- Botticelli, The Birth of Venus,
- Breugal. The Fall of Icarus
- Giotto - an early Italian Renaissance artist who made major progress in making painted figures seem realistic
- Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Vitruvian Man,
- Michelangelo The Sistine Chapel, David, Pieta,
- Raphael The School of Athens
- Jan Van Eyck, early user of oil paints; The Arnolfini Wedding
Great minds of the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution
- John Calvin: Founder of Puritanism.
- Christopher Columbus: explorer who sought a new pathway to Asia, but bumped into the Americas on the way.
- Nicolaus Copernicus: proposed heliocentric theory
- Galileo Galileii: multi-talented Italian scientist who used experiments and observation to prove things; he supported Heliocentrism, but was forced by the RC Church to recant (reputedly muttering "and yet it moves")
- Johan Gutenberg: combined printing press and moveable type technology to mass produce The Bible
- Martin Luther: Author of the 95 Theses, criticisms of the RC Church, which sparked the first successful break away (or protest, thus protestantism) from the Roman Catholic Church
- Nicolo Machiavelli: author of The Prince, forever identified with ruthlessness and the belief that "the end justifies the means"
- Ferdinand Magellan: leader of the first voyage to successfully go all the way around the world (though he didn't make it all the way)
- Isaac Newton: British physicist who explained the Law of Gravity and many other forces that determine how things move
Enlightenment Philosophers
- Thomas Hobbes: strong, strict government is necessary, but it exists because we NEED it (otherwise life is Nasty, Brutish, and Short), not because of any sort of Divine Right thing. We have government because we agree to have government because it's way better than not having government.
- John Locke: the purpose of government is to protect people's natural rights to security of life, liberty, and property. If government is not protecting those, the people are justified in changing it, by rebellion if necessary.
- Montesquieu: government power can be kept from getting repressive if multiple branches of government keep each other in check - Separation of Powers
- Voltaire: strong advocate of freedom of religion and speech.
- Rousseau: An early advocate of government action to break down class differences and the wealth gap
- Adam Smith: the Free Market, with little government involvement, will on its own provide innovative, problem-solving products at the cheapest price by using the human motive of ambition (or greed) and the challenges of competition. See Free Market, Comparative Advantage, and Laissez-Faire.
19th Century Thinkers
- Malthus: Connected growing food supply and population growth; predicted huge population growth, then famine
- Utilitarians: Said government should follow policies that bring the greatest happiness to the greatest number. (Nice idea; not easy to actually do)
- Karl Marx: In The Communist Manifesto, observed that all history is driven by struggle between "Haves and Have Nots"; said that (given how terrible the Industrial Revolution working conditions were) the workers from all over the world should and WOULD unite, rise up and overthrow the Bourgeois factory owners; they would create a perfect society which would run with no government and get contributions "from each according to his ability" while providing "to each according to his need."
Nice idea. BUT:
1) It doesn't work very well; where it's been tried it tends to turn into dictatorship
2) Workers cared more about their nation than their class. so no world uprising
3) some governments took action to make working conditions better. - Charles Darwin: Observed that natural selection brings about evolution in species. This (easily provable) concept disturbed people because it suggested that we're merely evolved animals, not "special".
Social Darwinism said that the evolution principle also created economic and class differences, and even national differences. Unfortunately, this was used to justify blaming the poor for their poverty and nations claiming superiority (like the NAZIs).
Rulers from Many Eras
- Archduke Ferdinand - the Austro-Hungarian heir whose main claim to being mentioned in history is that he was assassinated
- Charles I (of England) - had expected to be an absolutist king of England, but when he had to ask Parliament to approve more taxes they, along with the Puritans, rebelled under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War. He lost, and was executed.
- Oliver Cromwell - Leader of the rebels/Puritans during the English Civil War. After Charles' execution he hoped to have Parliament run things, but he lost patience with them, took over, and became something of a dictator. He made some improvements, but also instituted harsh laws and was especially brutal to Irish Catholics.
- Elizabeth I - The daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn, who became queen of England after her half-sister Mary Tudor (aka Bloody Mary). Protestant herself, she negotiated a settlement between Protestants and Catholics in England. She presided over a great Golden Age in England (Shakespeare, for example), but was the target of many assassination attempts. She never married.
- Henry VIII - The Egnlish king whose need for a male heir caused him to break with the Roman Catholic church and create the new Anglican church with himself at the top (so he could divorce his wife and marry someone new....who then produced a daughter)
- Adolph Hitler - Nationalist (that's what NAZI means) leader who gained dictatorial control of Germany in the 1930s, and whose agression against his neighbors brought on World War II.
- Vladimir Lenin - Leader of the Russian Revolution, and of the Soviet Union in its early days.
- Louis the Fourteenth/Louis XIV - King of France during its Golden Age. The best example of an Absolutist ruler. Known for having built Versailles
- Louis the Sixteenth/Louis XVI - the unfortunate king of France during its revolution. He lost his head. So did his wife Marie Antoinette, whose cluelessness about the condition of the poor is shown by her quotation "Let them eat cake." (except that she probably never said it)
- Napoleon - the military leader who gained control of post-revolutionary France, and led troops to take over most of Europe until his disastrous Russian campaign. His troops spread ideas of the metric system and Nationalism.
- Maxmillian Robespierre - Leader of France during the second stage of the French Revolution, also called the "Reign of Terror". He wanted to impose an early form of Communism, and had many, many people executed.
- Victoria - Queen of England for most of the 19th Century, at a time when the British controlled a very huge empire.
- Woodrow Wilson - American president during World War I who had great ideas for the peace treaty which were undermined.
Rebels
- Gavrilo Princip - Serbian nationalist whose assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in 1914 sparked the sequence that led to the outbreak of World War I
Identifications - Documents and Artworks
The Duomo - the huge dome in Florence that is the icon for the city
Magna Carta - Document signed by King John of England in 1215. It placed legal limits on the monarchy, including requiring the king to abide by the law and to ask for approval before imposing a tax. It is considered an important early "seed" of Constitutionalism
The Ninety-Five Theses - Luther's 1517 statement of disapproval of practices of the Roman Catholic Church including such things as simony and the selling of indulgences; credited with sparking the first successful protest movement against the Church and thus, the Reformation
The Prince - Machiavelli's famous book advising rulers to be realistic in their approach to gaining, using, and keeping power
Schlieffen Plan - The military plan Germany used to try to avoid a two-front war by invading France through Belgium to knock it out ahead of time. It didn't work.
Sistine Chapel - a room in the Vatican on whose ceiling and walls Michelangelo painted some pretty amazing paintings
Versailles Treaty - the document Germany was forced to sign at the end of World War I. It placed blame on Germany for starting the war and required it to pay reparations to the other countries
Zimmerman Note (or Zimmerman Telegram) - a message sent from Germany to Mexico in early 1917 urging Mexico to invade the United States; Germany promised it would assist Mexico in regaining control of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The telegram was intercepted and deciphered by the British, and American outrage at the note brought us into the war
Magna Carta - Document signed by King John of England in 1215. It placed legal limits on the monarchy, including requiring the king to abide by the law and to ask for approval before imposing a tax. It is considered an important early "seed" of Constitutionalism
The Ninety-Five Theses - Luther's 1517 statement of disapproval of practices of the Roman Catholic Church including such things as simony and the selling of indulgences; credited with sparking the first successful protest movement against the Church and thus, the Reformation
The Prince - Machiavelli's famous book advising rulers to be realistic in their approach to gaining, using, and keeping power
Schlieffen Plan - The military plan Germany used to try to avoid a two-front war by invading France through Belgium to knock it out ahead of time. It didn't work.
Sistine Chapel - a room in the Vatican on whose ceiling and walls Michelangelo painted some pretty amazing paintings
Versailles Treaty - the document Germany was forced to sign at the end of World War I. It placed blame on Germany for starting the war and required it to pay reparations to the other countries
Zimmerman Note (or Zimmerman Telegram) - a message sent from Germany to Mexico in early 1917 urging Mexico to invade the United States; Germany promised it would assist Mexico in regaining control of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The telegram was intercepted and deciphered by the British, and American outrage at the note brought us into the war
IdentificationS - Cultural Literacy Images
The Haves and The Have Nots - terms coined by Karl Marx to suggest that pretty much everyone in society either has (lots of) stuff or doesn't. Marx goes on to say that conflict between these two groups is the most important driving force in History. To a degree he was right: you can go to almost any historical conflict and frame it in terms of groups fighting over who gets the stuff.
"Left" and "Right" - terms for the two sides of the unending political debate between those who believe government should protect property rights and those who believe government should make sure that people's basic needs are met. Obviously it would be great to do both, but realistically, in order for government to meet basic needs it must have resources which come from taxing those with property.
Luddite - One who is resistant to or even frightened of new technologies. Named for a fictitious worker, Nedd Ludd, who was said to smash the job-killing machines of the Industrial Revolution
Quixotic - describes a person who pursues an idealistic (and ultimately unreachable) goal. The term is derived from Cervantes' book Don Quixote
Renaissance Man - a person who is knowledgeable in a wide range of subjects. (ex. Da Vinci, James Franco)
Utopia - a "perfect place". Utopian is the adjective form. The term is derived from Thomas More's book Utopia, a fictional travelogue which optimistically describes a perfect society, and is ironic in that it actually translates to "no place"
"Left" and "Right" - terms for the two sides of the unending political debate between those who believe government should protect property rights and those who believe government should make sure that people's basic needs are met. Obviously it would be great to do both, but realistically, in order for government to meet basic needs it must have resources which come from taxing those with property.
Luddite - One who is resistant to or even frightened of new technologies. Named for a fictitious worker, Nedd Ludd, who was said to smash the job-killing machines of the Industrial Revolution
Quixotic - describes a person who pursues an idealistic (and ultimately unreachable) goal. The term is derived from Cervantes' book Don Quixote
Renaissance Man - a person who is knowledgeable in a wide range of subjects. (ex. Da Vinci, James Franco)
Utopia - a "perfect place". Utopian is the adjective form. The term is derived from Thomas More's book Utopia, a fictional travelogue which optimistically describes a perfect society, and is ironic in that it actually translates to "no place"
Identifications - Events
Armistice - as a general term, a truce or cease-fire. As a specific term, refers to the cease-fire that ended World War I, famously at 11:00 on 11-11-1918.
The Black Plague; The Black Death; Bubonic Plague - refers to the horrific end-of-the-world-seeming events that swept the Eurasian continent in the 1300s. It peeked in Europe from 1348-1350, with the rapid death of at least 1/3 of the population (some estimates are much higher). Nasty, nasty disease. Really gross way to die. Really depressing to have it all around you. Looked like God's judgment, but how come the Church, which we had been counting on to make sure we didn't tick God off....how come the Church couldn't stop this? The plague did, however, shake up political and economic structure (workers became scarce, and thus more valuable, and many serfs left their villages to become free-men in towns), and it reduced the hold of the RC Church.
Crusades - a series of wars between 1096 and about 1450, all involving Western Europeans (led by Knights, but including commoners) travelling to the "Holy Land" - what we call the Middle East - in attempts to take control of land from Muslims. Though first 'sold' to the public as a holy war, and indeed the First Crusade did succeed in capturing Jerusalem in 1099, pretty quickly there was very little that was 'holy' about them. The Crusades DID, however, somewhat unify the feuding feudal kings of Europe against a common enemy, increase the power of the RC church, and increase European awareness of and contact with the rest of the world. It also failed in its original aim (Saladin took Jerusalem back in 1187) and left a legacy of deep mistrust of the West in the Muslim world.
The English Civil War - a successful rebellion by Parliament/Puritans against English king Charles I. (1642-1660) Eventually its leader, Oliver Cromwell, gained dictatorial rule.
The Glorious Revolution - After the Restoration, Parliament became concerned that a new king (Charles II's brother James II) was too Catholic. They forced him to abdicate. This established, once and for all, that Parliament had more power than the King.
Pandemic - a world-wide epidemic, especially the flu in 1919 that killed more people than World War had
Reign of Terror - term for the second phase of the French Revolution, when radicals under Robespierre took over and attempted to impose extreme leftist policies, executing tens-of-thousands who opposed them.
The Restoration - After Cromwell's death, Parliament decided it wanted a king after all and brought back (restored) Charles I's son as Charles II.
The Storming of the Bastille - a mob attack on an armory in Paris on July 14, 1789. Often cited as the begining of the French Revolution, its anniversary is celebrated every July 14 at Bastille Day.
Ultimatum - A firm set of demands tied to a “You’d better do this or else….” threat; specifically associated with Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia in the lead up to World War I
The Black Plague; The Black Death; Bubonic Plague - refers to the horrific end-of-the-world-seeming events that swept the Eurasian continent in the 1300s. It peeked in Europe from 1348-1350, with the rapid death of at least 1/3 of the population (some estimates are much higher). Nasty, nasty disease. Really gross way to die. Really depressing to have it all around you. Looked like God's judgment, but how come the Church, which we had been counting on to make sure we didn't tick God off....how come the Church couldn't stop this? The plague did, however, shake up political and economic structure (workers became scarce, and thus more valuable, and many serfs left their villages to become free-men in towns), and it reduced the hold of the RC Church.
Crusades - a series of wars between 1096 and about 1450, all involving Western Europeans (led by Knights, but including commoners) travelling to the "Holy Land" - what we call the Middle East - in attempts to take control of land from Muslims. Though first 'sold' to the public as a holy war, and indeed the First Crusade did succeed in capturing Jerusalem in 1099, pretty quickly there was very little that was 'holy' about them. The Crusades DID, however, somewhat unify the feuding feudal kings of Europe against a common enemy, increase the power of the RC church, and increase European awareness of and contact with the rest of the world. It also failed in its original aim (Saladin took Jerusalem back in 1187) and left a legacy of deep mistrust of the West in the Muslim world.
The English Civil War - a successful rebellion by Parliament/Puritans against English king Charles I. (1642-1660) Eventually its leader, Oliver Cromwell, gained dictatorial rule.
The Glorious Revolution - After the Restoration, Parliament became concerned that a new king (Charles II's brother James II) was too Catholic. They forced him to abdicate. This established, once and for all, that Parliament had more power than the King.
Pandemic - a world-wide epidemic, especially the flu in 1919 that killed more people than World War had
Reign of Terror - term for the second phase of the French Revolution, when radicals under Robespierre took over and attempted to impose extreme leftist policies, executing tens-of-thousands who opposed them.
The Restoration - After Cromwell's death, Parliament decided it wanted a king after all and brought back (restored) Charles I's son as Charles II.
The Storming of the Bastille - a mob attack on an armory in Paris on July 14, 1789. Often cited as the begining of the French Revolution, its anniversary is celebrated every July 14 at Bastille Day.
Ultimatum - A firm set of demands tied to a “You’d better do this or else….” threat; specifically associated with Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia in the lead up to World War I